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1. IntroductionIntro.1 Public Law No. 91-589, 84 Stat. 1585, 2 U.S.C. § 168Public Law No. 91-589, 84 Stat. 1585, 2 U.S.C. § 168 JOINT RESOLUTION Authorizing the preparation and printing of a revised edition of the Constitution of the United States of America—Analysis and . . .
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2. IntroductionIntro.2 Introduction to the 2012 Centennial EditionIntroduction to the 2012 Centennial Edition The need for a comprehensive treatise on the Constitution was apparent to Congress from early in the 20th century. In 1911, the Senate Manual (a compilation . . .
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3. IntroductionIntro.3 Historical Note on Formation of the ConstitutionHistorical Note on Formation of the Constitution In June 1774, the Virginia and Massachusetts assemblies independently proposed an intercolonial meeting of delegates from the several colonies to . . .
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4. IntroductionIntro.4 Bill of RightsBill of Rights First Through Tenth Amendments On September 12, five days before the Convention adjourned, Mason and Gerry raised the question of adding a bill of rights to the Constitution. Mason . . .
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5. IntroductionIntro.5 Proposed Amendments Not Ratified by the StatesProposed Amendments Not Ratified by the States During the course of our history, in addition to the twenty-seven amendments which have been ratified by the required three-fourths of the States, six . . .
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6. PreamblePre.1 Purpose and Effect of the PreamblePurpose and Effect of the Preamble Preamble: We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, . . .
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ArtI.S1.1 Separation of Powers and Checks and Balances
Separation of Powers and Checks and Balances Article I, Section 1: All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House . . .
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ArtI.S1.4.1 The History of the Doctrine of Nondelegability
The History of the Doctrine of Nondelegability Article I, Section 1: All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House . . .
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ArtI.S1.4.2 The Nature and Scope of Permissible Delegations
The Nature and Scope of Permissible Delegations Article I, Section 1: All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and . . .
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ArtI.S1.5.5 Sanctions of the Investigatory Power: Contempt
Sanctions of the Investigatory Power: Contempt Article I, Section 1: All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House . . .
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ArtI.S2.C1.1 Congressional Districting
Congressional Districting Article I, Section 2, Clause 1: The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in . . .
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ArtI.S2.C2.1.2.2 State Additions
State Additions Article I, Section 2, Clause 2: No Person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the Age of twenty five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, . . .
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ArtI.S2.C3.1.1 The Census Requirement
The Census Requirement Article I, Section 2, Clause 3: Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their . . .
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ArtI.S2.C4.1 In General
In General Article I, Section 2, Clause 4: When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies. The Supreme . . .
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ArtI.S3.C3.1 In General
In General Article I, Section 3, Clause 3: No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, . . .
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ArtI.S5.C1.1.2 A Quorum to Do Business
A Quorum to Do Business Article I, Section 5, Clause 1: Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum . . .
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ArtI.S5.C1.1.3 Rules of Proceedings
Rules of Proceedings Article I, Section 5, Clause 1: Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to . . .
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ArtI.S5.C1.1.4 Powers of the Houses Over Members
Powers of the Houses Over Members Article I, Section 5, Clause 1: Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute . . .
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ArtI.S7.C1.1.3 The Veto Power
The Veto Power Article I, Section 7, Clause 1: All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills. . . .
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ArtI.S8.C1.1.1 Kinds of Taxes Permitted
Kinds of Taxes Permitted Article I, Section 8, Clause 1: The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and . . .
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ArtI.S8.C1.2.2 Promotion of Business: Protective Tariff
Promotion of Business: Protective Tariff Article I, Section 8, Clause 1: The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the . . .
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ArtI.S8.C1.3.1 Scope of the Power
Scope of the Power Article I, Section 8, Clause 1: The Congress shall have Power To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general . . .
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ArtI.S8.C3.1.1 Purposes Served by the Grant
Purposes Served by the Grant Article I, Section 8, Clause 3: The Congress shall have Power . . . To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes; . . . .
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ArtI.S8.C3.1.7.3 Federal Regulation of Intrastate Rates (The Shreveport Doctrine)
Federal Regulation of Intrastate Rates (The Shreveport Doctrine) Article I, Section 8, Clause 3: The Congress shall have Power . . . To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several . . .
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ArtI.S8.C3.1.8.3 The Current of Commerce Concept: The Swift Case
The Current of Commerce Concept: The Swift Case Article I, Section 8, Clause 3: The Congress shall have Power . . . To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with . . .
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ArtI.S8.C3.1.10.5 Interstate Commerce: National Prohibitions and State Police Power
Interstate Commerce: National Prohibitions and State Police Power Article I, Section 8, Clause 3: The Congress shall have Power . . . To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several . . .
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ArtI.S8.C3.2.1 Doctrinal Background
Doctrinal Background Article I, Section 8, Clause 3: The Congress shall have Power . . . To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes; . . . The . . .
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ArtI.S8.C3.2.2 State Taxation and Regulation: The Old Law
State Taxation and Regulation: The Old Law Article I, Section 8, Clause 3: The Congress shall have Power . . . To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the . . .
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ArtI.S8.C3.2.4 Foreign Commerce and State Powers
Foreign Commerce and State Powers Article I, Section 8, Clause 3: The Congress shall have Power . . . To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian . . .
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ArtI.S8.C3.3.1 The General Issue: Preemption
The General Issue: Preemption Article I, Section 8, Clause 3: The Congress shall have Power . . . To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes; . . . .
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ArtI.S8.C4.1.1 Nature and Scope of Congress’s Power
Nature and Scope of Congresss Power Article I, Section 8, Clause 4: The Congress shall have Power . . . To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies . . .
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ArtI.S8.C4.2 Aliens
Aliens Article I, Section 8, Clause 4: The Congress shall have Power . . . To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States; . . .
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ArtI.S8.C4.3.1 Persons Who May Be Released from Debt
Persons Who May Be Released from Debt Article I, Section 8, Clause 4: The Congress shall have Power . . . To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of . . .
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ArtI.S8.C4.3.2 Liberalization of Relief Granted and Expansion of the Rights of the Trustee
Liberalization of Relief Granted and Expansion of the Rights of the Trustee Article I, Section 8, Clause 4: The Congress shall have Power . . . To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and . . .
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ArtI.S8.C4.3.3 Constitutional Limitations on the Bankruptcy Power
Constitutional Limitations on the Bankruptcy Power Article I, Section 8, Clause 4: The Congress shall have Power . . . To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject . . .
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ArtI.S8.C4.3.4 Constitutional Status of State Insolvency Laws: Preemption
Constitutional Status of State Insolvency Laws: Preemption Article I, Section 8, Clause 4: The Congress shall have Power . . . To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the . . .
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ArtI.S8.C5.1.1 Coinage, Weights, and Measures
Coinage, Weights, and Measures Article I, Section 8, Clause 5: The Congress shall have Power . . . To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and . . .
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ArtI.S8.C5.1.2 Punishment of Counterfeiting
Punishment of Counterfeiting Article I, Section 8, Clause 5: The Congress shall have Power . . . To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and . . .
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ArtI.S8.C5.1.3 Borrowing Power Versus Fiscal Power
Borrowing Power Versus Fiscal Power Article I, Section 8, Clause 5: The Congress shall have Power . . . To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights . . .
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ArtI.S8.C7.1.2 Power to Protect the Mails
Power to Protect the Mails Article I, Section 8, Clause 7: The Congress shall have Power . . . To establish Post Offices and post Roads; . . . The postal powers of Congress embrace all measures . . .
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ArtI.S8.C7.1.5 State Regulations Affecting the Mails
State Regulations Affecting the Mails Article I, Section 8, Clause 7: The Congress shall have Power . . . To establish Post Offices and post Roads; . . . In determining the extent to which state laws . . .
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ArtI.S8.C8.1.2 Patentable Discoveries
Patentable Discoveries Article I, Section 8, Clause 8: The Congress shall have Power . . . To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors . . .
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ArtI.S8.C8.1.3 Nature and Scope of the Right Secured for Copyright
Nature and Scope of the Right Secured for Copyright Article I, Section 8, Clause 8: The Congress shall have Power . . . To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited . . .
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ArtI.S8.C8.1.7 Trade-Marks and Advertisements
Trade-Marks and Advertisements Article I, Section 8, Clause 8: The Congress shall have Power . . . To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts, by securing for limited Times to Authors and . . .
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ArtI.S8.C9.1 In General
In General Article I, Section 8, Clause 9: The Congress shall have Power . . . To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court; . . . See discussion infra The Power of Congress to Control the . . .
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ArtI.S8.C11.1.1.1 Three Theories
Three Theories Article I, Section 8, Clause 11: The Congress shall have Power . . . To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water; . . . . . .
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ArtI.S8.C11.1.2 Declaration of War
Declaration of War Article I, Section 8, Clause 11: The Congress shall have Power . . . To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water; . . . . .
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ArtI.S8.C11.2.3 Conscription
Conscription Article I, Section 8, Clause 11: The Congress shall have Power . . . To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water; . . . The . . .
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ArtI.S8.C11.2.5 Trial and Punishment of Offenses: Servicemen, Civilian Employees, and Dependents
Trial and Punishment of Offenses: Servicemen, Civilian Employees, and Dependents Article I, Section 8, Clause 11: The Congress shall have Power . . . To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and . . .
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ArtI.S8.C17.2.1 Places
Places Article I, Section 8, Clause 17: The Congress shall have Power . . . To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by . . .
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ArtI.S8.C17.2.2 Duration of Federal Jurisdiction
Duration of Federal Jurisdiction Article I, Section 8, Clause 17: The Congress shall have Power . . . To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten . . .
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ArtI.S8.C17.2.3 Reservation of Jurisdiction by States
Reservation of Jurisdiction by States Article I, Section 8, Clause 17: The Congress shall have Power . . . To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding . . .
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ArtI.S9.C2.1 In General
In General Article I, Section 9, Clause 2: The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be suspended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it. This . . .
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ArtI.S9.C3.2.1 Definition
Definition Article I, Section 9, Clause 3: No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. Both federal and state governments are prohibited from enacting ex post facto laws, and the Court . . .
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ArtI.S9.C4.1.3 Restriction of the Pollock Decision
Restriction of the Pollock Decision Article I, Section 9, Clause 4: No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Proportion to the Census or enumeration herein before directed to be . . .
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ArtI.S9.C6.1 The No Preference Clause
The No Preference Clause Article I, Section 9, Clause 6: No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another: nor shall Vessels bound . . .
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ArtI.S9.C7.2 Payment of Claims
Payment of Claims Article I, Section 9, Clause 7: No Money shall be drawn from the Treasury but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law; and a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and . . .
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ArtI.S10.C1.3 Legal Tender
Legal Tender Article I, Section 10, Clause 1: No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of Credit; make any Thing . . .
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ArtI.S10.C1.5.3 Changes in Punishment
Changes in Punishment Article I, Section 10, Clause 1: No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of Credit; make . . .
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ArtI.S10.C1.6.2 Status of Judicial Decisions
Status of Judicial Decisions Article I, Section 10, Clause 1: No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of Credit; . . .
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ArtI.S10.C1.6.8 Contracts Include Public Contracts and Corporate Charters
Contracts Include Public Contracts and Corporate Charters Article I, Section 10, Clause 1: No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin . . .
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ArtI.S10.C1.6.10 Reservation of Right to Alter or Repeal Corporate Charters
Reservation of Right to Alter or Repeal Corporate Charters Article I, Section 10, Clause 1: No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin . . .
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ArtI.S10.C1.6.11 Corporation Subject to the Law and Police Power
Corporation Subject to the Law and Police Power Article I, Section 10, Clause 1: No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; . . .
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ArtI.S10.C1.6.14 Doctrine of Inalienability as Applied to Eminent Domain, Taxing, and Police Powers
Doctrine of Inalienability as Applied to Eminent Domain, Taxing, and Police Powers Article I, Section 10, Clause 1: No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of . . .
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ArtI.S10.C1.6.15 Private Contracts
Private Contracts Article I, Section 10, Clause 1: No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills of Credit; make any . . .
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ArtI.S10.C1.6.17 Private Contracts and the Police Power
Private Contracts and the Police Power Article I, Section 10, Clause 1: No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal; coin Money; emit Bills . . .
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ArtI.S10.C2.1.1.1 Scope
Scope Article I, Section 10, Clause 2: No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its . . .
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ArtI.S10.C3.3.1 Background of Clause
Background of Clause Article I, Section 10, Clause 3: No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agreement . . .
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ArtI.S10.C3.3.5 Legal Effect of Interstate Compacts
Legal Effect of Interstate Compacts Article I, Section 10, Clause 3: No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into . . .
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ArtII.S1.C1.1.2 Executive Power: Theory of the Presidential Office
Executive Power: Theory of the Presidential Office Article II, Section 1, Clause 1: The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during . . .
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ArtII.S1.C1.1.3 Executive Power: Separation-of-Powers Judicial Protection
Executive Power: Separation-of-Powers Judicial Protection Article II, Section 1, Clause 1: The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office . . .
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ArtII.S1.C2.1 Electoral College
Electoral College Article II, Section 1, Clause 2: Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Number of Senators and . . .
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ArtII.S1.C5.1 Qualifications
Qualifications Article II, Section 1, Clause 5: No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a Citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the . . .
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ArtII.S2.C1.1.2 Presidential Theory of the Commander-in-Chiefship in World War II–And Beyond
Presidential Theory of the Commander-in-Chiefship in World War II–And Beyond Article II, Section 2, Clause 1: The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and . . .
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ArtII.S2.C1.1.4 The President as Commander of the Armed Forces
The President as Commander of the Armed Forces Article II, Section 2, Clause 1: The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several . . .
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ArtII.S2.C1.1.5 Martial Law and Constitutional Limitations
Martial Law and Constitutional Limitations Article II, Section 2, Clause 1: The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several . . .
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ArtII.S2.C1.3.1 The Legal Nature of a Pardon
The Legal Nature of a Pardon Article II, Section 2, Clause 1: The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called . . .
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ArtII.S2.C1.3.2 Scope of the Power
Scope of the Power Article II, Section 2, Clause 1: The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the . . .
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ArtII.S2.C2.1.1 President and Senate
President and Senate Article II, Section 2, Clause 2: He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and . . .
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ArtII.S2.C2.1.2 Treaties as Law of the Land
Treaties as Law of the Land Article II, Section 2, Clause 2: He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present . . .
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ArtII.S2.C2.1.4 Interpretation and Termination of Treaties as International Compacts
Interpretation and Termination of Treaties as International Compacts Article II, Section 2, Clause 2: He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided . . .
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ArtII.S2.C2.2 International Agreements Without Senate Approval
International Agreements Without Senate Approval Article II, Section 2, Clause 2: He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the . . .
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ArtII.S2.C2.3.2 Appointments and Congressional Regulation of Offices
Appointments and Congressional Regulation of Offices Article II, Section 2, Clause 2: He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of . . .
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ArtII.S2.C2.3.3.3 When Senate Consent Is Complete
When Senate Consent Is Complete Article II, Section 2, Clause 2: He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present . . .
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ArtII.S2.C2.3.4.1 The Myers Case
The Myers Case Article II, Section 2, Clause 2: He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators present concur; and he . . .
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ArtII.S2.C2.3.5 The Presidential Aegis: Demands for Papers
The Presidential Aegis: Demands for Papers Article II, Section 2, Clause 2: He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two thirds of the Senators . . .
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ArtII.S2.C3.1 Recess Appointments
Recess Appointments Article II, Section 2, Clause 3: The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commissions which shall expire . . .
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88. Article II Section 3ArtII.S3.2.3 The Power of RecognitionThe Power of Recognition Article II, Section 3: He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall . . .
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89. Article II Section 3ArtII.S3.3.1 Powers Derived from the Take Care DutyPowers Derived from the Take Care Duty Article II, Section 3: He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures . . .
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90. Article II Section 3ArtII.S3.3.2 Impoundment of Appropriated FundsImpoundment of Appropriated Funds Article II, Section 3: He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he . . .
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91. Article II Section 3ArtII.S3.3.3 Power and Duty of the President in Relation to Subordinate Executive OfficersPower and Duty of the President in Relation to Subordinate Executive Officers Article II, Section 3: He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and . . .
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92. Article II Section 3ArtII.S3.3.4 The President as Law InterpreterThe President as Law Interpreter Article II, Section 3: He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he . . .
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93. Article II Section 3ArtII.S3.3.7 Preventive Martial LawPreventive Martial Law Article II, Section 3: He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such Measures as he shall . . .
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94. Article II Section 3ArtII.S3.4 Protection of American Rights of Person and Property AbroadProtection of American Rights of Person and Property Abroad Article II, Section 3: He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their . . .
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95. Article II Section 3ArtII.S3.5 Presidential Action in the Domain of Congress: The Steel Seizure CasePresidential Action in the Domain of Congress: The Steel Seizure Case Article II, Section 3: He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to . . .
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96. Article II Section 3ArtII.S3.6 Presidential Immunity from Judicial DirectionPresidential Immunity from Judicial Direction Article II, Section 3: He shall from time to time give to the Congress Information of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Consideration such . . .
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97. Article II Section 4ArtII.S4.1.1 Impeachment and Removal from Office: OverviewImpeachment and Removal from Office: Overview Article II, Section 4: The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and . . .
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98. Article II Section 4ArtII.S4.1.2.1 Offices Eligible for ImpeachmentOffices Eligible for Impeachment Article II, Section 4: The President, Vice President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, . . .
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99. Article III Section 1ArtIII.S1.1.1 Organization of Courts, Tenure, and Compensation of Judges: OverviewOrganization of Courts, Tenure, and Compensation of Judges: Overview Article III, Section 1: The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts . . .
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100. Article III Section 1ArtIII.S1.2.1 Characteristics and Attributes of Judicial PowerCharacteristics and Attributes of Judicial Power Article III, Section 1: The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may . . .
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